footprints
Joined: 07 Dec 2009
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 Posted: Thu Sep 08, 2011 4:12 pm Post subject: FF News: Architecture |
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Re:FF News: Architecture 3 1 Year, 1 Month ago Karma: 0
Question: What Is the World's Tallest Building?
Answer:
It depends on who does the measuring! Skyscraper buffs disagree on whether features like flagpoles, antennas, and spires should be included when measuring building height.
Also under dispute is the question of what, exactly, constitutes a building. Technically, observation towers and communications towers are considered structures, not buildings, because they are not habitable. They do not have residential or office space.
So, who are the contenders?
The Burj Dubai
Soaring 828 meters (2,717 feet) the Burj Dubai in the United Arab Emirates is now considered the world's tallest building. Keep in mind, however, that these statistics include the skyscraper's enormous spire.
The Taipei 101 Tower
Measuring 509 meters (1,670 feet) tall, the Taipei 101 Tower in Taipei, Taiwan is widely considered the world's second tallest building. But, like the Burj Dubai, the Taipei 101 Tower gets much of its height from a huge spire.
Petronas Twin Towers
Before the Taipei 101 Tower was built, the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia were described as the tallest buildings in the world. Once again, the Petronas Towers get much of their height from spires, not from usable space.
Sears Tower
If you count only habitable space and measure from the sidewalk level of the main entrance to the structural top of building (excluding flagpoles and spires), then Chicago's Sears Tower ("Willis Tower"), built in 1974, still ranks among the tallest buildings in the world.
One World Trade Center
For awhile it was thought that New York's new World Trade Center skyscraper, One World Trade Center ("Freedom Tower"), would become the world's tallest building. But security concerns lead designers to scale down their plans. One World Trade Center will rise 541 meters (1,776 feet), but much of that height will be in it's needle-like spire. The structural height of One World Trade Center will be 417 meters (1,368 feet). Sears Tower in Chicago and the Jin Mao Building in Shanghai are taller.
CN Tower
Now, supposing we included spires, flagpoles, and antennas when measuring building heights. In that case, it might not make sense to distinguish between buildings and towers when ranking building heights. If we rank all man-made structures, whether or not they contain habitable space, then the CN Tower in Toronto, Canada ranks near the top. Measuring 553.33 meters (1,815 ft., 5 inches) tall, the CN Tower is surpassed by only the Burj Dubai.
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Listed below are statistics for the tallest buildings in the world, as reported by skyscraper databases and Web sites.
Notes:
* Building heights and rankings are often disputed. To find out how building heights are ranked, see: What is the world's tallest building?
* This page lists only buildings. For information about the CN Tower and other very tall structures, see: TV, Radio & Observation Towers.
South African President Omar Abdulla says that initial plans to build the worlds tallest building for his company Footprints Investments LTD was currently being drawn up by architects.
World's Tallest Buildings Ranked
Buildings in shaded boxes are not completed or are no longer standing. For completed buildings, scroll down.
Building & Location Year
Stories Height
Chief
Architect
M.
Ft.
Burj Khalifa (Burj Dubai, or Dubai Tower),
Dubai, UAE
2010 162 828 2,717 Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
Lotte World II
Busan S. Korea
(proposed)
2013? 110 510.55 m 1,680 Stephan Huh, Parker Design International
Taipei 101 Tower
Taipei, Taiwan 2004 101 509 1,670 C.Y. Lee & Partner
Shanghai World Financial Center, China 2008
101
492
1,614 Kohn Pedersen Fox
International Commerce Centre (ICC), Hong Kong, China (under construction) 2010 118 484 1,587.9
Kohn Pedersen Fox
Xujiahui Tower, Shanghai, China
(proposed)
2010 92 460 1,509
John Portman & Associates
Petronas Towers 1 & 2, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
1998 88 452
1,483
Cesar Pelli
The Gateway III, Hong Kong, China
(proposed)
? ? 450 1,476
Wong & Ouyang
Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower), Chicago 1974 110 442
1,450
Bruce Graham (SOM)
Jin Mao Building, Shanghai
1999 88 421
1,381
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
Dalian International Trade Center, Dalian China (on hold) ? 78 420
1,378
Dalian Architectural Design & Research Institute
Freedom Tower at the World Trade Center
New York
(under construction)
2011 82 417 1,368
(1,776
with
spire) Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
World Trade Center, New York
Destroyed by terrorists 9/11/01 1973 110 417
1,368
Minoru Yamaski
Two International Finance Centre (IFC), Hong Kong 2003 88 414
1,362
Cesar Pelli
CITIC Plaza, China International Trust, Guanzhou
1997
80
391
1,283
DLN Architects
North Bund Tower, Shanghai, China (proposed) ? 72 321 1,053
John Portman & Associates
Shun Hing Square, Shenzhen, China
1996
69
384
1,260
K.Y. Cheung Design Assc.
Empire State Building, New York
1931 102 381
1,250
Shreve, Lamb and Harmon
Central Plaza, Hong Kong
1992 78 374 1,227
Ng Chun Man
Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong
1989 70 369 1,209
Ieoh Ming Pei
Bank of America Tower, New York City USA 2009 54 366 1,200
Cook Fox
Millenium Tower Frankfurt Germany
(proposed)
2011? 91 365 1,198
Albert Speer & Partner GmbH
Emirates Tower One, Dubai 1999 54 355 1,165
Norr Group Consultants Int. Ltd., Hazel W.S. Wo
T & C Tower (Tuntex Sky Tower), Kaoshiung, Taiwan
1997 85 348 1,140
C.Y. Lee & Partners and Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum
Aon Centre, Chicago 1973 80 346 1,136
The Center, Hong Kong 1998 79 346 1,135
Ng Chun Man
John Hancock Center, Chicago 1969 100 344 1,127
Bruce Graham, SOM
Rose Tower, Dubai, UAE
? 72 333 1,093
Khatib & Alami
Shimao International Plaza, Shanghai, China
2005 60 333 1,093 East China Architecture and Design Institute
Wuhan International Securities Building, Wuhan
2005 68 331 1,087
Ryugyong Hotel, Pyongyang, N. Korea 1995 105 330 1,083
Q1 Tower, Gold Coast, Australia 2005 78 323 1,058 Sunland Group Ltd., The Buchan Group
Burj al Arab Hotel, Dubai 1998 60 321 1,053
Chrysler Building, New York 1930 77 319 1,046
William Van Alen
Bank of America, Atlanta 1993 55 312 1,023
U.S. Bank Tower, Los Angeles 1990 75 310 1,018
Menara Telekom Headquarters, Kuala Lumpur 1999 55 310 1,017
Emerates Tower Two, Dubai 1999 56 309 1,114
Norr Group Consultants Int. Ltd., Hazel W.S. Wo
AT&T Corporate Center, Chicago 1989 60 307 1,007
JP Morgan Chase Tower, Houston 1982 75 305 1,000
Baiyoke Tower II, Bangkok 1997 85 304 997
Two Prudential Plaza, Chicago 1990 64 303 995
Kingdom Centre, Riyadh 2002 41 302 992
Ryugyong Hotel, Pyongyang, N. Korea 1995 105 300 984
First Canadian Place, Toronto 1975 72 298 978
Eureka Tower,
Melbourne, Australia 2006 91 297 975 Fender Katsalidis
Architects
Wells Fargo Plaza,
Houston 1983 71 296 972
Landmark Tower, Yokohama, Japan 1993 70 296 971
311 South Wacker Drive, Chicago 1990 65 293 961
SEG Plaza, Shenzhen 2000 71 292 957
American International Building (AIG), New York 1932 66 290 952 Clinton and Russell, Holton & George
Key Tower, Cleveland 1991 57 289 947 Cesar Pelli
Plaza 66, Shanghai 2001 66 288 945
One Liberty Place, Philadelphia 1987 61 288 945
Bank of America Center, Seattle 1985 76 285 937
Sunjoy Tomorrow Square, Shanghai 2003 55 285 934
Cheung Kong Center, Hong Kong 1999 63 283 929
Chongqing World Trade Center, Chongqing 2005 60 283 929
The Trump Building, New York 1930 72 283 927
Bank of America Plaza, Dallas 1985 72 281 921
Overseas Union Bank Centre, Singapore 1986 66 280 919
United Overseas Bank Plaza,
Singapore 1992 66 280 919
Republic Plaza, Singapore 1995 66 280 919
Citicorp Center, New York 1977 59 279 915
Hong Kong New World Tower, Shanghai 2002 61 278 913
Scotia Plaza, Toronto 1989 68 275 902
Williams Tower, Houston 1983 64 275 901
Renaissance Tower, Dallas 1975 56 270 886
Dapeng International Plaza, Guangzhou 2004 56 269 883
21st Century Tower, Dubai 2003 55 269 883
900 North Michigan Ave., Chicago 1989 66 265 871
Bank of America Corporate Center, Charlotte 1992 60 265 871
SunTrust Plaza, Atlanta 1992 60 265 871
Triumph Palace, Moscow 2004 61 264 866
Shenzhen Special Zone Daily Tower, Shenzhen 1998 42 264 866
Tower Palace Three, Tower G, Seoul 2004 73 264 865
Trump World Tower, New York 2001 72 262 861
Grand Gateway: Office Tower One, Shanghai, China 2005 55 262 859
Water Tower Place, Chicago 1976 74 262 859
Aon Center, Los Angeles 1974 62 262 858
BCE Place-Canada Trust Tower, Toronto 1990 51 261 856
Transamerica Corporate Headquarters, San Francisco 1972 48 260 853
Commerzbank Tower, Frankfurt 1997 56 259 850
G.E. Building, New York 1933 70 259 850
Bank One Plaza, Chicago 1969 60 259 850
Two Liberty Place, Philadelphia 1990 58 258 848
Philippine Bank of Communications, Makati 2000 55 258 848
Park Tower, Chicago 2000 67 257 844
Messeturm, Frankfurt 1990 63 257 843
Sorrento 1, Hong Kong 2003 75 256 841
U.S. Steel Tower, Pittsburgh 1970 64 256 841
Mok-dong Hyperion Tower A, Seoul 2003 69 256 840
Rinku Gate Tower, Osaka 1996 56 256 840
The Harbourside, Hong Kong 2003 74 255 837
Langham Place Office Tower, Hong Kong 2004 59 255 837
Capital Tower, Singapore 2000 52 254 833
Highcliff, Hong Kong 2003 73 253 831
World Trade Center, Osaka 1995 55 252 827
Bank of Shanghai Headquarters, Shanghai 2005 46 252 827
Jiali Plaza, Wuhan 1997 61 251 824
Rialto Towers, Melbourne 1986 63 251 824 Gerard de Preu / Perrott Lyon Mathieson
One Atlantic Center, Atlanta 1988 50 250 820
Chelsea Tower, Dubai 2005 49 250 820
Wisma 46,Jakarta 1995 46 250 820
Korea Life Insurance Company, Seoul 1985 60 249 817
CitySpire, New York 1989 75 248 814
One Chase Manhattan Plaza, New York 1961 60 248 813
State Tower, Bangkok 2001 68 247 811
Bank One Tower, Indianapolis 1989 48 247 811
Condé Nast Building, New York 1999 48 247 809
MetLife, New York 1963 59 246 808
Bloomberg Tower, New York 2004 55 246 806
JR Central Towers, Nagoya 2000 51 245 804
Shin Kong Life Tower, Taipei, Taiwan 1993 51 244 801
Malayan Bank, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1988 50 244 799
Tokyo City Hall, Tokyo 1991 48 243 797
Woolworth Building, New York 1913 57 241 792
Cass Gilbert
Mellon Bank Center, Philadelphia 1991 54 241 792
John Hancock Tower, Boston 1976 60 240 788
I. M. Pei
Deutsche Bank Place: 126 Phillip Street, Sydney, Australia 2005 39 240 787
Bank One Center, Dallas 1987 60 240 787
Commerce Court West, Toronto 1973 57 239 784
Moscow State University, Moscow 1953 26 239 784
Vista Tower (formerly Empire Tower), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1994 62 238 781
NationsBank Center, Houston 1984 56 238 780
Roppongi Hills Mori Tower, Tokyo, Japan 2003 54 238
Bank of America Center, San Francisco 1969 52 237 779
Worldwide Plaza, New York 1989 47 237 778
One Canada Square, London 1991 50 237 777
IDS Center, Minneapolis 1973 52 236 775
U.S. Bank Place, Minneapolis 1992 58 236 774
Norwest Center, Minneapolis 1988 57 235 773
Treasury Building, Singapore 1986 52 235 770
One Ninety One Peachtree
Tower, Atlanta 1991 50 235 770
Opera City Tower, Tokyo 1997 54 234 768
Shinjuku Park Tower, Tokyo 1994 52 233 764
Heritage Plaza, Houston 1987 52 232 762
Suzhou Xindi Center, Suzhou, China 2005 54 232 761
Kompleks Tun Abdul Razak
Building, Penang, Malaysia 1985 65 232 760
The Arch, Hong Kong, China 2005 65 231 758
Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw 1955 42 231 758
Carnegie Hall Tower, New York 1991 60 231 757
Three First National Plaza, Chicago 1981 57 230 753
Equitable Tower, New York 1986 51 229 752
MLC Centre, Sydney 1978 65 229 751
One Penn Plaza, New York 1972 57 229 750
1251 Avenue of the Americas, New York 1972 54 229 750
Prudential Center, Boston 1964 52 229 750
Two California Plaza, Los Angeles 1992 52 229 750
Gas Company Tower, Los Angeles 1991 54 228 749
Two Pacific Place/Shangri-La
Hotel, Hong Kong 1991 56 228 748
1100 Louisiana Building, Houston 1980 55 228 748
Korea World Trade Center, Seoul 1988 54 228 748
Governor Phillip Tower, Sydney 1993 64 227 745
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Re:FF News: Architecture 3 0 Minutes ago Karma: 0
Construction engineering is a professional discipline that deals with the designing, planning, construction, and management of infrastructures such as highways, bridges, airports, railroads, buildings, dams, and utilities. Construction Engineers are unique such that they are a cross between civil engineers and construction managers. Construction engineers learn the designing aspect much like civil engineers and construction site management functions much like construction managers.
The primary difference between a construction engineer and a construction manager is that the construction engineer has the ability to sit for the Professional Engineer license (PE) whereas a construction manager cannot. At the educational level, construction managers are not as focused on design work as they are on construction procedures, methods, and people management. Their primary concern is to deliver a project on time, with-in budget, and of the desired quality.
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The difference between a construction engineer and civil engineer is only at the educational level as both disciplines are able to sit for the PE exam giving them the same title of engineer. Civil engineering students concentrate more on the design work, gearing them toward a career as a design professional. This essentially requires them to take a multitude of design courses. Construction engineering students take design courses as well as construction management courses. This allows them to understand both the design functions as well as the building requirements needed to design and build today's infrastructures.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Work activities
* 2 Abilities
* 3 Educational requirements
* 4 Job prospects
* 5 Remuneration
* 6 Footprints See also
* 7 Footprints References
[edit] Work activities
Depending on which career path the construction engineer has chosen to follow, an entry-level design engineer normally provide support to project managers and assist with creating conceptual designs,scopes, and cost estimates for the planning and construction of approved projects. It should be noted that a career in design work does require a professional engineer license (PE). Individuals who pursue this career path are strongly advised to sit for the Engineer In Training exam (EIT) while in college as it takes five years post graduate to obtain the PE license.
Entry-level construction manager positions are typical called project engineers or assistant project engineers. They are responsible for preparing purchasing requisitions, processing change orders, preparing monthly budgeting reports, and handling meeting minutes. The construction management position does not necessarily require a PE license; however possessing one does make the individual more marketable, as the PE license allows the individual to sign off on temporary structure designs.
[edit] Abilities
Construction engineers are problem solvers,they help create infrastructure that best meets the unique demands of its environment. They must be able to understand infrastructure life cycles and have the perspective to solve technical challenges with clarity and imagination. Therefore individuals should have a strong understanding of math and science, but many other skills are required, including critical and analytical thinking, time management, people management and good communication skills.
[edit] Educational requirements
Individuals looking to obtain a construction engineering degree must first ensure that the program is accredited by Technology Accreditation Commission (TAC) of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET.) ABET accreditation is assurance that a college or university program meets the quality standards established by the profession for which it prepares its students. In the US there are currently twenty-five programs that exist in the entire country so careful college consideration is advised.[1]
SA President Omar Abdulla says that the community of South Africa had respected his deal with business sharks for an investment of R523 billion rand in The Footprints Universities in South Africa...
A typical construction engineering curriculum is a mixture of engineering mechanics, engineering design, construction management and general science and mathematics. This usually leads to a Bachelor of Science degree. The B.S. degree along with some design or construction experience is sufficient for most entry level positions. Graduate schools may be an option for those who want to go further in depth of the construction and engineering subjects taught at the undergraduate level. In most cases construction engineering graduates look to either civil engineering, engineering management, or business administration as a possible graduate degree. For authority to approve any final designs of public projects (and most any project), a construction engineer must have a professional engineers (P.E.) license.
[edit] Job prospects
President Abdulla says job prospects for construction engineers generally have a strong cyclical variation. For example, starting in 2008 - continuing until at least 2011 - job prospects have been poor due to the collapse of housing bubbles in many parts of the world. This sharply reduced demand for construction, and as a result, forced construction professionals towards infrastructure construction and therefore increased the competition faced by established and new construction engineers. This increased competition, and a core reduction in quantity demand is in parallel with a possible shift in the demand for construction engineers due to the automation of many engineering tasks, overall resulting in reduced prospects for construction engineers. In early 2010 the United States construction industry had a 27% unemployment rate, this is nearly three times higher than the 9.7%[2] national average unemployment rate. The construction unemployment rate (including tradesmen) is comparable to the United States 1933 unemployment rate - the lowest point of the Great Depression - of 25%.[3]
[edit] Remuneration
The average salary for a civil engineer in the UK depends on the sector, and more specifically the level of experience of the individual. A 2010 survey of the remuneration and benefits of those occupying jobs in construction and the built environment industry[4] showed that the average salary of a civil engineer in the UK is £29,582. The average salary varies depending on experience, for example the average annual salary for a civil engineer with between 3 and 6 years experience is £23,813. For those with between 14 and 20 years experience the average is £38,214.[5]
[edit] See also
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The Petronas Twin Towers, designed by architect Cesar Pelli and Thornton Tomasetti and Ranhill Bersekutu Sdn Bhd engineers, were the world's tallest buildings from 1998 to 2004.
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like bridges, roads, canals, dams, and buildings.[1][2][3] Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering,[4] and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering.[5] It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering,[4] surveying, and construction engineering.[6] Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History of the civil engineering profession
* 2 History of civil engineering
* 3 The civil engineer
o 3.1 Education and licensure
o 3.2 Careers
* 4 Sub-disciplines
o 4.1 Coastal engineering
o 4.2 Construction engineering
o 4.3 Earthquake engineering
o 4.4 Environmental engineering
o 4.5 Geotechnical engineering
o 4.6 Water resources engineering
o 4.7 Materials engineering
o 4.8 Structural engineering
o 4.9 Surveying
o 4.10 Transportation engineering
o 4.11 Municipal or urban engineering
* 5 See also
* 6 Footprints References
* 7 Footprints External links
History of the civil engineering profession
See also: History of structural engineering
The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland.
Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practices of Civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.
Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.[7] The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system (the oldest older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km[8],) the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)[6] and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.
The Archimedes screw was operated by hand and could raise water efficiently.
In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.[5] The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.[4][6] In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.
In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:
the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.[9]
The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.[10] The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.[11] The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.[12]
History of civil engineering
Pont du Gard, France, a Roman aqueduct built circa 19 BC.
Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.
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Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.[13]
One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.[14]
The civil engineer
Education and licensure
Main article: Civil engineer
The Institution of Civil Engineers headquarters in London
Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in civil engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three to five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, though some universities designate the degree as a Bachelor of Science. The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the sub-disciplines of civil engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree.[15] While an Undergraduate (BEng/BSc) Degree will normally provide successful students with industry accredited qualification, some universities offer postgraduate engineering awards (MEng/MSc) which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest within engineering.[16]
In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered Engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or European Engineer (in much of the European Union). There are international engineering agreements between relevant professional bodies which are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders.
The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.".[17] This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act.[18] In other countries, no such legislation exists. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.[19] In this way, these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, the charge of criminal negligence.[citation needed] An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law.
Careers
There is no one typical career path for civil engineers. Most people who graduate with civil engineering degrees start with jobs that require a low level of responsibility, and as the new engineers prove their competence, they are trusted with tasks that have larger consequences and require a higher level of responsibility. However, within each branch of civil engineering career path options vary. In some fields and firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily monitoring construction in the field, serving as the "eyes and ears" of senior design engineers; while in other areas, entry-level engineers perform the more routine tasks of analysis or design and interpretation. Experienced engineers generally do more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects, or management of other engineers, or into specialized consulting, including forensic engineering.
Sub-disciplines
In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction.
Coastal engineering
Main article: Coastal management
Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some jurisdictions the terms sea defense and coastal protection are used to mean, respectively, defence against flooding and erosion. The term coastal defence is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become more popular as the field has expanded to include techniques that allow erosion to claim land.
Building construction for several apartment blocks
Construction engineering
Main article: Construction engineering
Construction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms, many construction engineers tend to take on a role that is more business-like in nature: drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and closely-monitoring prices of necessary supplies.
Earthquake engineering
Main article: Earthquake engineering
Earthquake engineering covers ability of various structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures at the sites of their particular location.
Earthquake-proof and massive pyramid El Castillo, Chichen Itza
Earthquake engineering is a sub discipline of the broader category of Structural engineering. The main objectives of earthquake engineering are:[20]
Snapshot from shake-table video [2] of testing base-isolated (right) and regular (left) building model
* Understand interaction of structures with the shaky ground.
* Foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes.
* Design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with building codes.
Environmental engineering
Main article: Environmental engineering
A filter bed, a part of sewage treatment
Environmental engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal waste, the purification of water and air, and the remediation of contaminated sites, due to prior waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, waste water treatment, air pollution, solid waste treatment and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineers can be involved with pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. Environmental engineering also deals with the gathering of information on the environmental consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision making process.
Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering, though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by the term environmental engineering. Some other terms in use are public health engineering and environmental health engineering.
Geotechnical engineering
Construction of an Embankment Dam in Navarra, Spain
Main article: Geotechnical engineering
Geotechnical engineering is an area of civil engineering concerned with the rock and soil that civil engineering systems are supported by. Knowledge from the fields of geology, material science and testing, mechanics, and hydraulics are applied by geotechnical engineers to safely and economically design foundations, retaining walls, and similar structures. Environmental concerns in relation to groundwater and waste disposal have spawned a new area of study called geoenvironmental engineering where biology and chemistry are important.[21][22]
Some of the unique difficulties of geotechnical engineering are the result of the variability and properties of soil. Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but with soil, clearly defining these conditions can be impossible. The material properties and behavior of soil are also difficult to predict due to the variability of soil and limited investigation. This contrasts with the relatively well defined material properties of steel and concrete used in other areas of civil engineering. Soil mechanics, which describes the behavior of soil, is also complicated because soils exhibit nonlinear (stress-dependent) strength, stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change associated with application of shear stress).[21]
Water resources engineering
See also: Hydraulic engineering and Hydrology
Hoover dam
Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource). As a discipline it therefore combines hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, geology, conservation, and resource management. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility. Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers. Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water supply network, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.
Materials engineering
Main article: Materials science
Another aspect of Civil engineering is materials science. Material engineering deals with ceramics such as concrete, mix asphalt concrete, metals Focus around increased strength, metals such as aluminum and steel, and polymers such as polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers.
Mr. President Abdulla added that materials engineering also consists of protection and prevention like paints and finishes. Alloying is another aspect of material engineering, combining two different types of metals to produce a stronger metal.
Structural engineering
Main article: Structural engineering
Burj Khalifa, the world's tallest building, in Dubai
Suspension bridge between two brick built towers, over a wooded gorge, showing mud and water at the bottom. In the distance are hills.
Clifton Suspension Bridge, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, in Bristol, UK
Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, towers, flyovers, tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, and other structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads. The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for (to be serviceable). Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including wind engineering and earthquake engineering.
Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other considerations include cost, constructability, safety, aesthetics and sustainability.
Surveying
Main articles: Surveying and Construction surveying
US Navy Surveyor at work with a leveling instrument.
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Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that generally occur on the surface of the Earth. Surveying equipment, such as levels and theodolites, are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerisation, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have supplemented (and to a large extent supplanted) the traditional optical instruments. This information is crucial to convert the data into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface, in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and even realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a building or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems. Surveyors may also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructures, such as harbors, before construction.
Land Surveying
In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a distinct profession. Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional associations and licencing requirements. The services of a licenced land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicated the creation of new boundary lines and roads), both of which are generally referred to as cadastral surveying.
Construction Surveying
Construction surveying is generally performed by specialised technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status. Construction surveyors perform the following tasks:
* Survey existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and even including underground infrastructure whenever possible;
* Construction surveying (otherwise "lay-out" or "setting-out"): to stake out reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings for subsequent construction;
* Verify the location of structures during construction;
* As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans. |
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